# Xylazine: veterinary dose and monograph

> Xylazine is a veterinary sedative or anaesthetic agent. Alpha-2 agonist sedative-analgesic. Indications include sedation / chemical restraint; pre-anaesthetic (often combined with ketamine); analgesia (short duration). This monograph lists 24 reference doses for dogs, cats, cattle, horses, goats and sheep and 9 more species, each with route, frequency and source, plus meat and milk withdrawal periods for food animals.

Source: https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/xylazine · Last reviewed: 2026-10-01

## At a glance

- **Drug class:** Sedative / anaesthetic
- **Also known as:** Rompun, AnaSed, Cervizine, Sedazine
- **Species with doses:** Dogs, Cats, Cattle, Horses, Goats, Sheep, Pigs, Birds, Rabbits, Ferrets, Guinea pigs, Hamsters, Rats, Mice and Gerbils
- **General dose range:** 0.05–1.1 mg/kg IM as needed — check the species tables for the indication
- **Routes:** IV, IM, IP
- **Last reviewed:** 1 October 2026

## Indications

- Sedation / chemical restraint
- Pre-anaesthetic (often combined with ketamine)
- Analgesia (short duration)
- Emetic in cats (toxin ingestion)
- Equine epidural / colic analgesia
- Cattle restraint for standing procedures

## Xylazine dose by species

Doses are per administration unless stated. mg/kg doses scale with body weight; per-animal, per-quarter and infusion-rate doses are shown as the reference writes them.

### Dogs

*Xylazine doses for dogs*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Pre-anaesthetic (low dose) | 0.2–1 mg/kg | IV | once | — |
| Analgesia (post-op) | 0.1–0.5 mg/kg | IM | as needed | — |

- Pre-anaesthetic (low dose): Plumb’s p.1176: pre-anaesthetic 0.2–1 mg/kg IV, IM or SC (Hartsfield) — the label dose (1.1 mg/kg IV, 1.1–2.2 mg/kg IM/SC) is considered too high and causes arrhythmias; with opioids 0.05–0.2 mg/kg (Dyson). Papich 5e: 1.1 mg/kg IV or 2.2 mg/kg IM. Reverse with atipamezole or yohimbine.
- Analgesia (post-op): Papich 5e: short-term pain 0.1–0.5 mg/kg IM, IV or SC. Plumb’s p.1176 (Carroll 1999): analgesia 0.1–1 mg/kg; post-operative anxiety 0.1–0.5 mg/kg IV, IM or SC. Epidural 0.02–0.25 mg/kg diluted to 0.26 mL/kg.

### Cats

*Xylazine doses for cats*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Pre-anaesthetic | 0.2–1 mg/kg | IM | once | — |
| Emetic (toxin ingestion) | 0.44 mg/kg | IM | once | — |

- Pre-anaesthetic: Plumb’s p.1176: 0.2–1 mg/kg IV, IM or SC (label 1.1 mg/kg IV, 1.1–2.2 mg/kg IM/SC considered high). Papich 5e: 1.1 mg/kg IM; pain 0.1–0.5 mg/kg IM, IV or SC. Vomiting is common after IM injection.
- Emetic (toxin ingestion): Plumb’s p.1176 (Morgan; Riviere): 0.44 mg/kg IM. Papich 5e: 0.4–0.5 mg/kg IM or IV. Reverse sedation afterwards with yohimbine or atipamezole. Do not induce emesis after caustic or hydrocarbon ingestion or in an obtunded cat.

### Cattle

*Xylazine doses for cattle*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration | Withdrawal |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Standing sedation / restraint | 0.05–0.15 mg/kg | IV | once | — | 7d slaughter / 72h milk |
| Recumbency / IM use | 0.1–0.3 mg/kg | IM | once | — | 7d slaughter / 72h milk |

- Standing sedation / restraint: Cattle 10× more sensitive — use 20 mg/mL solution. Pre-treat with atropine for bradycardia / hypersalivation. WITHDRAWAL (Plumb's pp.1176, 1178): xylazine is NOT FDA-approved in US cattle and no US withdrawal is specified. The Canadian label assigns 3 d meat / 48 h milk; FARAD suggests 7 d meat / 72 h milk for EXTRA-LABEL use. The conservative FARAD figures are recorded here — verify against your national label. Papich 5e: cattle 0.03–0.1 mg/kg IV or 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IM. Plumb’s p.1178 (Walz 2006): 0.05–0.15 mg/kg IV, 0.1–0.3 mg/kg IM, 0.05–0.07 mg/kg epidurally.
- Recumbency / IM use: Plumb’s p.1178 (Walz 2006): 0.1–0.3 mg/kg IM (0.05–0.15 mg/kg IV; 0.05–0.07 mg/kg epidural). Papich 5e: 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IM, 0.03–0.1 mg/kg IV. Cattle are about 10× more sensitive than horses — use the 20 mg/mL solution. FARAD extra-label suggestion 7 d meat / 72 h milk (Canadian label 3 d / 48 h).

### Horses

*Xylazine doses for horses*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Standing sedation (IV) | 0.5–1.1 mg/kg | IV | once | — |
| Field anaesthesia (with ketamine) | 1 mg/kg | IV | pre-induction | — |
| Colic analgesia | 0.2–0.5 mg/kg | IV | as needed | — |
| Sedation (IM) | 1–2.2 mg/kg | IM | once | — |

- Standing sedation (IV): Papich 5e: standing chemical restraint 0.5–1.0 mg/kg IV bolus (optionally followed by a 0.72–1 mg/kg/h CRI). Plumb’s p.1178: label 1.1 mg/kg IV; sedation/analgesia 0.2–1.1 mg/kg IV or IM. Effects last 20–30 min IV. ARCI Class 3.
- Field anaesthesia (with ketamine): Plumb’s p.1178 (label): 1.1 mg/kg IV; wait until full sedation (head lowered) before ketamine 2–2.2 mg/kg IV. Papich 5e: ‘triple drip’ — 500 mg xylazine + 2 g ketamine in 1 L of 5% guaifenesin, 1.1 mL/kg to induce then 2–4 mL/kg/h.
- Colic analgesia: Papich 5e: colic pain 0.3–0.5 mg/kg IV (150–250 mg for an average horse). Plumb’s p.1178 (Moore 1999): 0.2–0.5 mg/kg IV (20–30 min of analgesia) or 0.6–1 mg/kg IM (1–2 h). Check heart rate first; repeated need for analgesia is a surgical indicator.
- Sedation (IM): Papich 5e: 1–2 mg/kg IM. Plumb’s p.1178 (Rompun label): 2.2 mg/kg IM — higher IM doses are needed for the same effect as IV.

### Goats

*Xylazine doses for goats*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration | Withdrawal |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Light standing sedation (20 mg/mL only) | 0.01 mg/kg | IV | once | — | Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label |
| Recumbency (~1 h) — upper limit (20 mg/mL only) | 0.2 mg/kg | IM | once | — | Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label |

- Light standing sedation (20 mg/mL only): Plumb’s p.1178 (Snyder 2009): 0.01 mg/kg IV for light standing sedation, up to 0.2 mg/kg IM for about an hour of recumbency. Goats are slightly more sensitive than sheep — start at the low end. Use ONLY the 20 mg/mL solution; keep a reversal agent on hand. Papich 5e lists wider ranges for goats — 0.01–0.5 mg/kg IV or 0.05–0.5 mg/kg IM; goats are sensitive, so start at the low end. Papich 5e: goats 0.01–0.5 mg/kg IV, 0.05–0.5 mg/kg IM. Obtain a FARAD withdrawal.
- Recumbency (~1 h) — upper limit (20 mg/mL only): Plumb’s p.1178 (Snyder 2009): up to 0.2 mg/kg IM for about an hour of recumbency. Goats are more sensitive than sheep; reversal agent on hand.

### Sheep

*Xylazine doses for sheep*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration | Withdrawal |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Light standing sedation (20 mg/mL only) | 0.01 mg/kg | IV | once | — | Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label |
| Recumbency (~1 h) — upper limit (20 mg/mL only) | 0.2 mg/kg | IM | once | — | Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label |

- Light standing sedation (20 mg/mL only): Plumb’s p.1178 (Snyder 2009): 0.01 mg/kg IV for light standing sedation, up to 0.2 mg/kg IM for about an hour of recumbency. Use ONLY the 20 mg/mL solution; goats are slightly more sensitive than sheep. Keep a reversal agent (atipamezole, tolazoline or yohimbine) on hand. Papich 5e lists higher ranges for sheep — 0.05–0.1 mg/kg IV or 0.1–0.3 mg/kg IM; start at the conservative end. Papich 5e: sheep 0.05–0.1 mg/kg IV, 0.1–0.3 mg/kg IM. Obtain a FARAD withdrawal.
- Recumbency (~1 h) — upper limit (20 mg/mL only): Plumb’s p.1178 (Snyder 2009): up to 0.2 mg/kg IM gives recumbency of about an hour. Start conservatively; reversal agent on hand.

### Pigs

*Xylazine doses for pigs*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration | Withdrawal |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Miniature/pet pig — anaesthesia (with ketamine) | 1–2 mg/kg | IM | once | — | Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label |
| Sedation (best combined with ketamine) | 0.5–3 mg/kg | IM | once | — | Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label |

- Miniature/pet pig — anaesthesia (with ketamine): Carpenter Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 12-4 (p.665): mini pigs — ketamine 10 mg/kg + xylazine 1 mg/kg IM, or ketamine 15–20 mg/kg + xylazine 2 mg/kg SC/IM; dexmedetomidine 10–40 µg/kg can substitute for xylazine. Not used alone; combine with ketamine ± butorphanol. Reverse with atipamezole/yohimbine.
- Sedation (best combined with ketamine): Papich 5e: pigs 0.5–3 mg/kg IM; unreliable alone — e.g. xylazine 2 mg/kg mixed with ketamine 10 mg/kg IM. Extra-label in a food animal — consult FARAD.

### Buffalo

No buffalo-specific doses are on file, so buffalo are dosed as cattle.

*Xylazine doses for buffalo*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration | Withdrawal |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Standing sedation / restraint | 0.05–0.15 mg/kg | IV | once | — | 7d slaughter / 72h milk |
| Recumbency / IM use | 0.1–0.3 mg/kg | IM | once | — | 7d slaughter / 72h milk |

- Standing sedation / restraint: Cattle 10× more sensitive — use 20 mg/mL solution. Pre-treat with atropine for bradycardia / hypersalivation. WITHDRAWAL (Plumb's pp.1176, 1178): xylazine is NOT FDA-approved in US cattle and no US withdrawal is specified. The Canadian label assigns 3 d meat / 48 h milk; FARAD suggests 7 d meat / 72 h milk for EXTRA-LABEL use. The conservative FARAD figures are recorded here — verify against your national label. Papich 5e: cattle 0.03–0.1 mg/kg IV or 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IM. Plumb’s p.1178 (Walz 2006): 0.05–0.15 mg/kg IV, 0.1–0.3 mg/kg IM, 0.05–0.07 mg/kg epidurally.
- Recumbency / IM use: Plumb’s p.1178 (Walz 2006): 0.1–0.3 mg/kg IM (0.05–0.15 mg/kg IV; 0.05–0.07 mg/kg epidural). Papich 5e: 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IM, 0.03–0.1 mg/kg IV. Cattle are about 10× more sensitive than horses — use the 20 mg/mL solution. FARAD extra-label suggestion 7 d meat / 72 h milk (Canadian label 3 d / 48 h).

### Birds

*Xylazine doses for birds*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Sedation (psittacines) | 1–4 mg/kg | IM | once | — |

- Sedation (psittacines): Plumb’s p.1177: 1–4 mg/kg IM as a sedative for ketamine anaesthesia, up to 10 mg/kg in small psittacines (Clyde & Paul-Murphy); ketamine 10–30 mg/kg + xylazine 2–6 mg/kg IM, higher per-kg doses in birds <250 g (Wheler). Avoid in debilitated birds (cardiodepressant).

### Rabbits

*Xylazine doses for rabbits*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with ketamine) | 5 mg/kg | IM | once | — |

- Anaesthesia (with ketamine): Plumb's p.1177 (Flecknell 2008): rabbits — xylazine 5 mg/kg SC/IM + ketamine 35 mg/kg for 20–30 min surgical anaesthesia. Reverse with atipamezole 1 mg/kg.

### Ferrets

*Xylazine doses for ferrets*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Sedation / analgesia (combination) | 0.5–2 mg/kg | IM | once | — |

- Sedation / analgesia (combination): Plumb's p.1177 (Finkler 1999): 0.5–2 mg/kg IM or SC, usually combined with atropine 0.05 mg/kg (or glycopyrrolate 0.01 mg/kg); or butorphanol 0.2 mg/kg + xylazine 2 mg/kg IM. Reverse with atipamezole/yohimbine.

### Guinea pigs

*Xylazine doses for guinea pigs*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with ketamine, IP) | 5 mg/kg | IP | once | — |

- Anaesthesia (with ketamine, IP): Plumb's p.1177: guinea pigs — xylazine 5 mg/kg + ketamine 40 mg/kg IP.

### Hamsters

*Xylazine doses for hamsters*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with ketamine, IP) | 10 mg/kg | IP | once | — |

- Anaesthesia (with ketamine, IP): Plumb's p.1177: hamsters — xylazine 10 mg/kg + ketamine 200 mg/kg IP.

### Rats

*Xylazine doses for rats*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with ketamine, IP) | 10–13 mg/kg | IP | once | — |

- Anaesthesia (with ketamine, IP): Plumb's p.1177: rats — xylazine 10 mg/kg + ketamine 75 mg/kg IP (or 13 mg/kg + ketamine 87 mg/kg, Huerkamp 1995).

### Mice

*Xylazine doses for mice*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with ketamine, IP) | 10–13 mg/kg | IP | once | — |

- Anaesthesia (with ketamine, IP): Plumb's p.1177: mice — xylazine 10 mg/kg + ketamine 80 mg/kg IP (or 13 mg/kg + ketamine 87 mg/kg IP).

### Gerbils

*Xylazine doses for gerbils*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with ketamine, IP) | 2 mg/kg | IP | once | — |

- Anaesthesia (with ketamine, IP): Plumb's p.1177: gerbils — xylazine 2 mg/kg + ketamine 50 mg/kg IP.

## Contraindications

Cardiac dysfunction, ventricular arrhythmias, hypotension/shock, severe respiratory disease, severe hepatic/renal impairment, last trimester of pregnancy (especially cattle — premature parturition). Not approved for food animals. Avoid intra-arterial (causes seizures, collapse).

## Species-specific warnings

> **Caution:** Cattle: 10× MORE SENSITIVE than horses/dogs. Cattle dose 0.05–0.1 mg/kg IM. Risk of fatal bradycardia, hypotension, bloat. Pre-treat with atropine 0.04 mg/kg. Avoid in late pregnancy — induces parturition.

> **Caution:** Horses: Standard sedative for field procedures. 0.6–1.1 mg/kg IV. Excessive doses cause profound ataxia and recovery problems. Avoid in pregnant mares near term.

> **Caution:** Dogs: Profound bradycardia common — pre-treat with atropine 0.04 mg/kg unless contraindicated (e.g. HCM). Reversal with atipamezole if cardiovascular collapse.

> **Caution:** Cats: Used as emetic at 0.44 mg/kg IM (5-min onset). Sedation at 1–2 mg/kg IM. Vomiting is expected — fast for 6 h pre-administration to reduce aspiration risk.

> **Caution:** Goats: Goats are sensitive — use 0.05 mg/kg IM, similar to cattle. Bloat risk if prolonged.

> **Caution:** Camelids: Camelids (alpacas, llamas, camels) are also alpha-2 sensitive — use 0.2–0.4 mg/kg IM.

## Adverse effects

- Bradycardia and partial AV block
- Reduced respiratory rate
- Emesis (cats and occasionally dogs)
- Aerophagia / bloat in dogs
- Cattle: salivation, ruminal atony, regurgitation, hypothermia, premature parturition
- Horses: muscle tremors, sweating, kicking response to auditory stimuli
- Reduced tear production (cats)

## Drug interactions

- Other CNS depressants (acepromazine, opioids, anaesthetics, benzodiazepines): additive sedation and cardiovascular depression — reduce doses 30–50%
- Epinephrine / sympathomimetics: severe hypertension at peak xylazine effect
- Atropine / glycopyrrolate: usually used pre-emptively to blunt xylazine bradycardia
- Yohimbine / atipamezole / tolazoline: REVERSAL agents — atipamezole is the most selective alpha-2 antagonist
- Halothane / isoflurane: additive cardiovascular depression — reduce inhalant MAC by 30%
- Insulin: xylazine causes hyperglycaemia by suppressing insulin — caution in diabetic patients

## Pregnancy and lactation

AVOID in last trimester of cattle pregnancy — induces uterine contractions, causes premature parturition / abortion. Crosses placenta freely — fetal depression. Use detomidine or alpha-2 alternatives if sedation needed. In other species, similar caution but less documented. In equine practice, used carefully in mares.

## Monitoring

- Pre-sedation: heart rate, respiratory rate, mucous membranes, hydration
- During sedation: continuous HR, SpO2 (target >95%), MM colour, capillary refill
- Cattle: rumen for bloat — keep sternal recumbency if prolonged
- Body temperature — hypothermia is common in cold environments
- Recovery: HR, RR until fully ambulatory; reverse if recovery delayed

## Toxicity and overdose

Cattle are 10× more sensitive than horses to xylazine — fatal overdose at therapeutic equine doses. Profound bradycardia / heart block can be fatal — pre-treat with atropine in high-risk patients. Hypotension and decreased cardiac output. Hypoxaemia (decreased respiratory rate + tidal volume). Hypothermia. Bloat in cattle (sustained sedation can cause rumen tympany). Aspiration pneumonia from regurgitation. Cats: vomiting is dramatic but usually safe — used historically as emetic.

Management: Reverse with atipamezole (alpha-2 antagonist): 0.1 mg/kg IM/IV in dogs and cats; yohimbine 0.1 mg/kg IV in horses, cattle; tolazoline 2–4 mg/kg IV in cattle, horses. Support cardiopulmonary function: IV fluids for hypotension, atropine 0.04 mg/kg IV for bradycardia, supplemental oxygen, intubation if airway protection compromised. Re-sedation possible — monitor for 4–6 h post-reversal.

## Clinical pearls

- CATTLE DOSE: 0.05–0.1 mg/kg IM — 10× LOWER than horses/dogs. Cattle that get a horse-dose can DIE.
- Horses: 0.6–1.1 mg/kg IV for sedation; combine with butorphanol 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IV for "chemical restraint"
- Dogs / cats: 1 mg/kg IM (cats) or IV (dogs) — pre-treat with atropine 0.04 mg/kg if no contraindication, to blunt bradycardia
- Cats: classic emetic at 0.44 mg/kg IM — works within 5 min in 75–90% of cats. Apomorphine preferred in dogs.
- Reversal: atipamezole 5× the xylazine dose (volume) IM is the classic rule of thumb
- Pregnant cow at term: AVOID — risk of abortion / premature calving from uterine stimulation
- Bovine downer / fracture work: pre-treat with atropine, use 0.05 mg/kg IM, support sternal recumbency, watch for bloat

## Mechanism of action

Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonist. Stimulates pre-synaptic alpha-2 receptors in the CNS, reducing noradrenaline release — produces sedation, analgesia, and muscle relaxation. Peripheral effects: initial brief hypertension (alpha-1 effect), then sustained bradycardia and hypotension (vagal + central sympatholysis). Reduces GI motility, causes hyperglycaemia (insulin suppression), and stimulates ADH release (diuresis followed by oliguria). Antagonised by yohimbine, atipamezole, tolazoline.

## Formulations and products

- Rompun 20 mg/mL
- Rompun 100 mg/mL
- Cervizine 300 mg/mL (deer/elk)
- Xylaxin (Indian Immunologicals (IIL), Hyderabad) — Xylazine HCl 23.32 mg/mL (2 % injection), 2 % injection (multidose vial)

## Storage

Injectable: 15–25 °C, protect from light. Multidose vials: discard 28 days after broaching. Do not freeze.

## Before you use this dose

> **Caution:** Reference doses for veterinary professionals. Confirm the dose against the product label, the patient’s condition, current guidance and local regulations before use; the attending veterinarian remains responsible for every clinical decision.

## Other sedatives and anaesthetics

- [Sevoflurane](https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/sevoflurane)
- [Thiopental Sodium](https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/thiopental)
- [Tiletamine–Zolazepam](https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/tiletamine-zolazepam)
- [Trazodone](https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/trazodone)

## Frequently asked questions

### What is the dose of Xylazine for dogs?

Reference doses for Xylazine in dogs: 0.2–1 mg/kg IV once (Pre-anaesthetic (low dose)); 0.1–0.5 mg/kg IM as needed (Analgesia (post-op)). Confirm against the label and the patient before use.

### What is the dose of Xylazine for cats?

Reference doses for Xylazine in cats: 0.2–1 mg/kg IM once (Pre-anaesthetic); 0.44 mg/kg IM once (Emetic (toxin ingestion)). Confirm against the label and the patient before use.

### What is the dose of Xylazine for cattle?

Reference doses for Xylazine in cattle: 0.05–0.15 mg/kg IV once (Standing sedation / restraint); 0.1–0.3 mg/kg IM once (Recumbency / IM use). Confirm against the label and the patient before use.

### What is the withdrawal period for Xylazine?

Cattle, IV (Standing sedation / restraint): 7d slaughter / 72h milk; Cattle, IM (Recumbency / IM use): 7d slaughter / 72h milk; Goats, IV (Light standing sedation (20 mg/mL only)): Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label; Goats, IM (Recumbency (~1 h) — upper limit (20 mg/mL only)): Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label; Sheep, IV (Light standing sedation (20 mg/mL only)): Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label; Sheep, IM (Recumbency (~1 h) — upper limit (20 mg/mL only)): Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label; see the tables on this page for the remaining 2. Follow the product label and national regulations where they differ.

### When should Xylazine not be used?

Cardiac dysfunction, ventricular arrhythmias, hypotension/shock, severe respiratory disease, severe hepatic/renal impairment, last trimester of pregnancy (especially cattle — premature parturition). Not approved for food animals. Avoid intra-arterial (causes seizures, collapse).

### What are the side effects of Xylazine in animals?

Bradycardia and partial AV block; Reduced respiratory rate; Emesis (cats and occasionally dogs); Aerophagia / bloat in dogs; Cattle: salivation, ruminal atony, regurgitation, hypothermia, premature parturition; Horses: muscle tremors, sweating, kicking response to auditory stimuli.

## Sources

- Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook
- Papich, Papich Handbook of Veterinary Drugs, 5th edition
- Carpenter, Exotic Animal Formulary

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VetMasterJi is a clinical decision-support and education platform for veterinary professionals and students. It does not provide veterinary advice, diagnosis or treatment for specific animals. All drug doses, calculators and differentials are references that must be independently verified before clinical use; the attending registered veterinarian remains solely responsible for every clinical decision.