# Ketamine HCl: veterinary dose and monograph

> Ketamine HCl is a veterinary sedative or anaesthetic agent. Dissociative anaesthetic. Indications include feline restraint and minor surgical anaesthesia; induction agent (with xylazine / diazepam / medetomidine); NMDA antagonist for adjunctive pain (low-dose CRI). This monograph lists 23 reference doses for dogs, cats, cattle, horses, goats and sheep and 13 more species, each with route, frequency and source, plus meat and milk withdrawal periods for food animals.

Source: https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/ketamine · Last reviewed: 2026-10-01

## At a glance

- **Drug class:** Sedative / anaesthetic
- **Also known as:** Ketaset, Ketalar, Vetalar, VetaKet
- **Species with doses:** Dogs, Cats, Cattle, Horses, Goats, Sheep, Pigs, Birds, Rabbits, Ferrets, Guinea pigs, Reptiles, Hamsters, Rats, Mice, Gerbils, Hedgehogs, Sugar gliders and Primates
- **General dose range:** 2–22 mg/kg IM as needed — check the species tables for the indication
- **Routes:** IM, IV, IP
- **Last reviewed:** 1 October 2026

## Indications

- Feline restraint and minor surgical anaesthesia
- Induction agent (with xylazine / diazepam / medetomidine)
- NMDA antagonist for adjunctive pain (low-dose CRI)
- Equine field anaesthesia (with xylazine ± butorphanol)
- Cattle / small ruminant short-procedure anaesthesia

## Ketamine HCl dose by species

Doses are per administration unless stated. mg/kg doses scale with body weight; per-animal, per-quarter and infusion-rate doses are shown as the reference writes them.

### Dogs

*Ketamine HCl doses for dogs*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia / chemical restraint | 5.5–22 mg/kg | IM | once | — |
| NMDA-antagonist analgesia (CRI) | 0.3–0.5 mg/kg | IV | loading + CRI | — |
| Adjunctive pain (low dose) | 0.1–1 mg/kg | IM | q4–6h | — |

- Anaesthesia / chemical restraint: Papich 5th ed p.495: dogs 5.5–22 mg/kg IV or IM — the LOWER end of the range is the IV dose, the HIGHER end the IM dose. Never as a sole agent: always combine with an alpha-2 agonist (dexmedetomidine/xylazine) or a benzodiazepine (diazepam/midazolam), otherwise muscle rigidity, spontaneous movement and a rough recovery follow. Pre-treat with atropine/glycopyrrolate for hypersalivation.
- NMDA-antagonist analgesia (CRI): Papich 5th ed p.495: loading dose 0.3–0.5 mg/kg IV, then 0.3–0.6 mg/kg/h (5–10 µg/kg/min) intra-operatively, increased to 1 mg/kg/h if needed; post-op analgesia continues at 0.12 mg/kg/h for up to 18 h. NOTE: this is an ANALGESIC dose — it is roughly 40× below the anaesthetic dose above.
- Adjunctive pain (low dose): Plumb’s p.693 (Nieves 2002): 0.1–1 mg/kg PO, IM or SC q4–6h for mild–moderate pain with opioids; intra-operative 0.5 mg/kg IV then 10–20 µg/kg/min, post-op 2–10 µg/kg/min (Hellyer). See the CRI row for Papich 5e rates.

### Cats

*Ketamine HCl doses for cats*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Restraint (label) | 11 mg/kg | IM | once | — |
| Minor surgical anaesthesia (label) | 22–33 mg/kg | IM | once | — |

- Restraint (label): Plumb’s p.693 (Ketaset label): 11 mg/kg IM for restraint; atropine or glycopyrrolate first to reduce salivation. Papich 5e: cats 2–25 mg/kg IV or IM (lower IV), preferably with acepromazine 0.1 mg/kg or a benzodiazepine; short procedures 3–5 mg/kg with dexmedetomidine 25 µg/kg IM.
- Minor surgical anaesthesia (label): Plumb’s p.693 (label): 22–33 mg/kg IM for diagnostic or minor surgical procedures not needing muscle relaxation; pre-treat with atropine or glycopyrrolate. Combination protocols with an alpha-2 agonist and opioid allow far lower ketamine doses.

### Cattle

*Ketamine HCl doses for cattle*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration | Withdrawal |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Induction (after xylazine) | 2–2.2 mg/kg | IV | once | — | Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label |
| Analgesic CRI | 0.4–1.2 mg/kg/h | IV | CRI (after 0.6 mg/kg IV load) | — | Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label |

- Induction (after xylazine): Plumb’s p.693: after atropine and xylazine, 2 mg/kg IV bolus (Thurmon & Benson) or 2.2 mg/kg IV after sedation (Mandsager). Papich 5e: 2 mg/kg IV; ketamine 1.1 mg/kg with xylazine 0.5 mg/kg IV. Extra-label in food animals — obtain a FARAD withdrawal.
- Analgesic CRI: Plumb’s p.693 (Miesner 2009): 0.4–1.2 mg/kg/h as adjunctive analgesia. Papich 5e (horses, cattle, sheep, swine): 0.6 mg/kg IV load then 0.4–0.8 mg/kg/h, up to 1.2 mg/kg/h. Obtain a FARAD withdrawal.

### Horses

*Ketamine HCl doses for horses*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Field anaesthesia (with xylazine 1.1 mg/kg IV) | 2.2–2.75 mg/kg | IV | once | — |

- Field anaesthesia (with xylazine 1.1 mg/kg IV): Plumb’s p.693: xylazine 1.1 mg/kg IV, wait for full sedation (head to knees, 4–8 min), then ketamine 2.2–2.75 mg/kg IV bolus (higher for ponies and excitable breeds) (Thurmon & Benson); 2 mg/kg IV after xylazine 1 mg/kg IV (Mathews). Top-ups ⅓–½ of the original doses. Papich 5e: 2 mg/kg IV after sedation. ARCI Class 2.

### Goats

*Ketamine HCl doses for goats*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration | Withdrawal |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with atropine + xylazine premed) | 11 mg/kg | IM | once | — | Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label |

- Anaesthesia (with atropine + xylazine premed): Plumb’s p.693 (Thurmon & Benson 1986): atropine, xylazine 0.22 mg/kg IM 20–25 min later, then ketamine 11 mg/kg IM about 10 min after the xylazine; extend with 2–4 mg/kg IV (or 6 mg/kg for longer). Obtain a FARAD withdrawal.

### Sheep

*Ketamine HCl doses for sheep*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration | Withdrawal |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with atropine + acepromazine) | 22 mg/kg | IM | once | — | Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label |

- Anaesthesia (with atropine + acepromazine): Plumb’s p.693 (Thurmon & Benson 1986): atropine 0.22 mg/kg and acepromazine 0.55 mg/kg, then ketamine 22 mg/kg IM; extend with 2–4 mg/kg IV; or 2 mg/kg IV induction then a 2 mg/mL infusion. Papich 5e: 2 mg/kg IV. Obtain a FARAD withdrawal.

### Pigs

*Ketamine HCl doses for pigs*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration | Withdrawal |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with atropine pre-med) | 11 mg/kg | IM | once | — | Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label |

- Anaesthesia (with atropine pre-med): Plumb’s p.693 (Thurmon & Benson 1986): atropine, then ketamine 11 mg/kg IM; extend with 2–4 mg/kg IV; with acepromazine 1.1 mg/kg, ketamine 22 mg/kg IM (Swindle); 4.4 mg/kg IM or IV after sedation. Papich 5e: 10 mg/kg IM, often with xylazine. Obtain a FARAD withdrawal.

### Buffalo

No buffalo-specific doses are on file, so buffalo are dosed as cattle.

*Ketamine HCl doses for buffalo*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration | Withdrawal |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Induction (after xylazine) | 2–2.2 mg/kg | IV | once | — | Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label |
| Analgesic CRI | 0.4–1.2 mg/kg/h | IV | CRI (after 0.6 mg/kg IV load) | — | Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label |

- Induction (after xylazine): Plumb’s p.693: after atropine and xylazine, 2 mg/kg IV bolus (Thurmon & Benson) or 2.2 mg/kg IV after sedation (Mandsager). Papich 5e: 2 mg/kg IV; ketamine 1.1 mg/kg with xylazine 0.5 mg/kg IV. Extra-label in food animals — obtain a FARAD withdrawal.
- Analgesic CRI: Plumb’s p.693 (Miesner 2009): 0.4–1.2 mg/kg/h as adjunctive analgesia. Papich 5e (horses, cattle, sheep, swine): 0.6 mg/kg IV load then 0.4–0.8 mg/kg/h, up to 1.2 mg/kg/h. Obtain a FARAD withdrawal.

### Birds

*Ketamine HCl doses for birds*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with xylazine 2–6 mg/kg IM) | 10–30 mg/kg | IM | once | — |

- Anaesthesia (with xylazine 2–6 mg/kg IM): Plumb’s p.694 (Wheler 1993): ketamine 10–30 mg/kg + xylazine 2–6 mg/kg IM, with higher per-kg doses in birds <250 g; with diazepam 0.5–2 mg/kg, ketamine 10–50 mg/kg IM; with acepromazine, 25–50 mg/kg. Xylazine combinations are unsuitable for debilitated birds. Isoflurane is generally preferred.

### Rabbits

*Ketamine HCl doses for rabbits*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Rabbit anaesthesia — ketamine + xylazine (surgical, 20–30 min) | 35 mg/kg | IM | once | — |

- Rabbit anaesthesia — ketamine + xylazine (surgical, 20–30 min): Plumb’s pp.694, 1177 (Flecknell 2008): ketamine 35 mg/kg + xylazine 5 mg/kg IM gives 20–30 min surgical anaesthesia (reverse xylazine with atipamezole 1 mg/kg); ketamine 25 mg/kg + xylazine 5 mg/kg + butorphanol 0.1 mg/kg IM gives 60–90 min. Ketamine alone: 20–50 mg/kg IM or 15–20 mg/kg IV (Ivey & Morrisey 2000), who advise against xylazine combinations in pet rabbits.

### Ferrets

*Ketamine HCl doses for ferrets*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (combination) | 5 mg/kg | IM | once | — |

- Anaesthesia (combination): Plumb’s p.694 (Finkler 1999): ketamine 5 mg/kg + butorphanol 0.1 mg/kg + medetomidine 80 µg/kg combined in one syringe IM; may need isoflurane (0.5–1.5%) for abdominal surgery. (The earlier 25 mg/kg figure is not in Plumb’s.)

### Guinea pigs

*Ketamine HCl doses for guinea pigs*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with xylazine, IP) | 40 mg/kg | IP | once | — |

- Anaesthesia (with xylazine, IP): Plumb's p.1177: guinea pig ketamine 40 mg/kg + xylazine 5 mg/kg IP.

### Reptiles

*Ketamine HCl doses for reptiles*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Sedation / pre-anaesthetic (most species) | 20–60 mg/kg | IM | once | — |

- Sedation / pre-anaesthetic (most species): Carpenter’s Exotic Animal Formulary, Table 4-5: most reptiles 20–60 mg/kg SC or IM for sedation; much higher surgical doses give very prolonged recovery (24–96 h) and are unsafe in debilitated or renally impaired reptiles — ketamine is generally recommended only as a pre-anaesthetic before isoflurane. Iguanas need lower doses. No reptile dose in Papich or Plumb’s.

### Hamsters

*Ketamine HCl doses for hamsters*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with xylazine, IP) | 100–200 mg/kg | IP | once | — |

- Anaesthesia (with xylazine, IP): Plumb's p.694/1177: hamsters 100 mg/kg IM alone; or ketamine 200 mg/kg + xylazine 10 mg/kg IP.

### Rats

*Ketamine HCl doses for rats*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia | 40–100 mg/kg | IP | once | — |

- Anaesthesia: Plumb's p.694 (Burke 1999): rats — alone 50–100 mg/kg IM/IP (40–50 mg/kg IV); with xylazine 40–75 mg/kg + xylazine 5–12 mg/kg IM/IP; with diazepam 40–60 mg/kg + diazepam 5–10 mg/kg IP.

### Mice

*Ketamine HCl doses for mice*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia | 50–100 mg/kg | IP | once | — |

- Anaesthesia: Plumb's p.694 (Burke 1999): mice — alone 50–100 mg/kg IM/IP (50 mg/kg IV); with xylazine 100 mg/kg + xylazine 5–15 mg/kg IM/IP; with diazepam 200 mg/kg + diazepam 5 mg/kg IM/IP.

### Gerbils

*Ketamine HCl doses for gerbils*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with xylazine, IP) | 50–100 mg/kg | IP | once | — |

- Anaesthesia (with xylazine, IP): Plumb's p.694/1177: gerbils 100 mg/kg IM alone; or ketamine 50 mg/kg + xylazine 2 mg/kg IP.

### Hedgehogs

*Ketamine HCl doses for hedgehogs*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anaesthesia (with medetomidine or midazolam) | 5–30 mg/kg | IM | once | — |

- Anaesthesia (with medetomidine or midazolam): Carpenter Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 8-4 (p.516): hedgehogs — ketamine 5 mg/kg + medetomidine 0.1 mg/kg IM (reverse M with atipamezole), or ketamine 30 mg/kg + midazolam 1 mg/kg IM (partial reversal with flumazenil). Not recommended as a sole agent — poor relaxation, rough recovery.

### Sugar gliders

*Ketamine HCl doses for sugar gliders*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Immobilisation (with midazolam or medetomidine) | 20–50 mg/kg | IM | once | — |

- Immobilisation (with midazolam or medetomidine): Carpenter Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 7-3 (p.499): sugar gliders 20 mg/kg IM (up to 30–50 mg/kg IM); combinations preferred for muscle relaxation — e.g. ketamine 10–20 mg/kg + midazolam 0.35–0.5 mg/kg SC/IM. Isoflurane is the anaesthetic of choice.

### Primates

*Ketamine HCl doses for primates*

| Indication | Dose | Route | Frequency | Duration |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Restraint / anaesthesia (monkeys) | 5–20 mg/kg | IM | once | — |

- Restraint / anaesthesia (monkeys): Carpenter Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 13-4 (p.694–695): monkeys 5–12 mg/kg IM (10 mg/kg typical); prosimians 5–15 mg/kg IM/IV; great apes 6–10 mg/kg; chimpanzees 5–20 mg/kg IM. Causes seizures in lemurs if used alone — combine with dexmedetomidine/midazolam in prosimians. Often combined with dexmedetomidine 0.02–0.03 mg/kg IM.

## Contraindications

Hypersensitivity. Severe hypertension, heart failure, arterial aneurysm, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Head trauma / raised CSF or intra-ocular pressure. Pre-existing seizure disorders (relative). Major surgery as sole agent (no muscle relaxation). Hyperthyroidism. Patients with significant blood loss (reduce dose). Animals to be used for human consumption.

## Species-specific warnings

> **Caution:** Cats: Seizures (~20%) at therapeutic doses without benzo co-administration. ALWAYS combine with diazepam or alpha-2. Hyperthermia and eyes-open are expected — apply ocular lubricant.

> **Caution:** Dogs: POOR sole induction agent — muscle rigidity, sympathomimetic surge. Combine with diazepam or alpha-2 always. Avoid in HCM, hypertension, head trauma.

> **Caution:** Horses: Field anaesthesia standard with xylazine 1.1 mg/kg IV then ketamine 2.2 mg/kg IV. Recovery in quiet, padded box; avoid sympathomimetic stimulation.

> **Caution:** Cattle: Short-procedure anaesthesia at 2–5 mg/kg IV after xylazine. Cattle handle ketamine well but use sternal recumbency to prevent regurgitation.

> **Caution:** Goats: Similar to cattle — 4–6 mg/kg IV after xylazine. Watch for laryngeal reflex preservation — does NOT secure airway.

> **Caution:** Birds: Used in raptors / poultry at 10–30 mg/kg IM with diazepam or medetomidine. Higher doses for larger psittacines.

## Adverse effects

- Cats: seizures (~20% at therapeutic doses), hyperthermia, eyes-open (corneal drying)
- Hypertension, tachycardia, increased myocardial oxygen demand
- Respiratory depression (high doses)
- Emergence reactions (vocalization, jerky recovery)
- Hypersalivation, opisthotonos, muscular tremors
- Pain at IM injection

## Drug interactions

- Alpha-2 agonists (xylazine, dexmedetomidine, medetomidine): SYNERGISTIC — primary anaesthesia partner. Reduce ketamine dose 30–50%
- Benzodiazepines (diazepam, midazolam): reduce muscle rigidity, improve recovery — standard combo for induction
- Opioids (morphine, methadone, fentanyl): synergistic analgesia
- Acepromazine: enhances ketamine sedation — used in "TKX" (telazol-ketamine-xylazine) and similar protocols
- Halothane: theoretical arrhythmogenic risk; sevoflurane / isoflurane preferred
- Theophylline / aminophylline: lowers seizure threshold — increased ketamine seizure risk
- Atropine: routinely co-administered to control hypersalivation

## Pregnancy and lactation

Crosses placenta — neonatal depression possible if used at delivery. Generally safe at induction doses in caesarean section if other techniques contraindicated. Excreted in milk in low amounts. FDA Category D (human pregnancy).

## Monitoring

- Heart rate, blood pressure — sympathomimetic surge expected; concerning if exceeds 30% above baseline
- Respiratory rate, SpO2 — supplemental oxygen if SpO2 <94%
- Ocular lubrication — eyes remain open under dissociative anaesthesia
- Body temperature — hyperthermia risk, especially cats
- Recovery: sensory environment quiet, low-light to minimise emergence dysphoria
- Salivation — pre-treat with atropine 0.04 mg/kg if salivation is excessive

## Toxicity and overdose

Cats: seizures (~20% at therapeutic doses without benzo co-administration), hyperthermia, eyes-open (corneal drying — apply ophthalmic lubricant). Respiratory depression at high doses or rapid IV. Tachyarrhythmias in cardiac patients. Increased intracranial / intraocular pressure — AVOID in head trauma, glaucoma. Sympathomimetic surge can precipitate decompensation in HCM, decompensated CHF.

Management: No specific antidote. Supportive: airway, oxygen / mechanical ventilation if respiratory depression, IV fluids for hypotension (uncommon — usually hypertension instead). Seizures: diazepam 0.5 mg/kg IV. Hyperthermia: active cooling. Recovery may be prolonged (4–8 h). Yohimbine 0.1 mg/kg IV reverses concurrent xylazine effect.

## Clinical pearls

- Cat anaesthesia "Kitty Magic": ketamine 5 mg/kg + dexmedetomidine 0.005 mg/kg + butorphanol 0.2 mg/kg IM — 30-min anaesthesia
- "Triple drip" equine field anaesthesia: ketamine 2 mg/kg + xylazine 1 mg/kg + guaifenesin (CRI)
- Low-dose ketamine CRI (10 µg/kg/min) for chronic post-op pain — NMDA antagonism prevents wind-up
- Dog induction: ketamine 5 mg/kg + diazepam 0.25 mg/kg IV mixed in same syringe
- NEVER alone in healthy adult dogs (poor muscle relaxation, severe sympathomimetic surge) — always combine with alpha-2, benzo, or propofol
- Cats with HCM, hyperthyroid: AVOID — sympathomimetic surge can be fatal
- Head trauma / brain tumour: AVOID — raises ICP. Use alfaxalone or propofol instead.
- Apply ophthalmic lubricant to both eyes immediately after induction

## Mechanism of action

Dissociative anaesthetic, non-competitive NMDA glutamate receptor antagonist. Also blocks HCN1 channels (anti-nociception), partially inhibits mAChR and nicotinic ACh receptors. Produces catalepsy (open eyes, intact reflexes), profound analgesia (somatic > visceral), and amnesia without classic GABA-mediated unconsciousness. Preserves laryngeal / pharyngeal reflexes more than other anaesthetics — useful but does NOT guarantee airway. Cardiovascular: sympathomimetic — increased HR, BP, CO (catecholamine release) — making it useful in hypovolaemic / shock patients but contraindicated in HCM, hypertension, intracranial hypertension.

## Formulations and products

- Ketaset / Vetalar 100 mg/mL (vet)
- Ketalar human 10 mg/mL
- Ketalar human 50 mg/mL

## Storage

Schedule III controlled substance — locked cabinet. Injectable: 15–25 °C, protect from light. Do not freeze. Multidose vial: discard 28 days after broaching.

## Before you use this dose

> **Caution:** Reference doses for veterinary professionals. Confirm the dose against the product label, the patient’s condition, current guidance and local regulations before use; the attending veterinarian remains responsible for every clinical decision.

## Other sedatives and anaesthetics

- [Diazepam](https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/diazepam)
- [Etomidate](https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/etomidate)
- [Guaifenesin (GGE)](https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/guaifenesin)
- [Isoflurane](https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/isoflurane)
- [Medetomidine](https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/medetomidine)
- [Midazolam](https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/midazolam)
- [Pentobarbital (Pentobarbitone)](https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/pentobarbital)
- [Phenobarbital](https://vetmasterji.com/drugs/phenobarbital)

## Frequently asked questions

### What is the dose of Ketamine HCl for dogs?

Reference doses for Ketamine HCl in dogs: 5.5–22 mg/kg IM once (Anaesthesia / chemical restraint); 0.3–0.5 mg/kg IV loading + CRI (NMDA-antagonist analgesia (CRI)); 0.1–1 mg/kg IM q4–6h (Adjunctive pain (low dose)). Confirm against the label and the patient before use.

### What is the dose of Ketamine HCl for cats?

Reference doses for Ketamine HCl in cats: 11 mg/kg IM once (Restraint (label)); 22–33 mg/kg IM once (Minor surgical anaesthesia (label)). Confirm against the label and the patient before use.

### What is the dose of Ketamine HCl for cattle?

Reference doses for Ketamine HCl in cattle: 2–2.2 mg/kg IV once (Induction (after xylazine)); 0.4–1.2 mg/kg/h IV CRI (after 0.6 mg/kg IV load) (Analgesic CRI). Confirm against the label and the patient before use.

### What is the withdrawal period for Ketamine HCl?

Cattle, IV (Induction (after xylazine)): Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label; Cattle, IV (Analgesic CRI): Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label; Goats, IM (Anaesthesia (with atropine + xylazine premed)): Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label; Sheep, IM (Anaesthesia (with atropine + acepromazine)): Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label; Pigs, IM (Anaesthesia (with atropine pre-med)): Withdrawal NOT established — treat as extra-label. Follow the product label and national regulations where they differ.

### When should Ketamine HCl not be used?

Hypersensitivity. Severe hypertension, heart failure, arterial aneurysm, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Head trauma / raised CSF or intra-ocular pressure. Pre-existing seizure disorders (relative). Major surgery as sole agent (no muscle relaxation). Hyperthyroidism. Patients with significant blood loss (reduce dose). Animals to be used for human consumption.

### What are the side effects of Ketamine HCl in animals?

Cats: seizures (~20% at therapeutic doses), hyperthermia, eyes-open (corneal drying); Hypertension, tachycardia, increased myocardial oxygen demand; Respiratory depression (high doses); Emergence reactions (vocalization, jerky recovery); Hypersalivation, opisthotonos, muscular tremors; Pain at IM injection.

## Sources

- Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook
- Papich, Papich Handbook of Veterinary Drugs, 5th edition
- Carpenter, Exotic Animal Formulary

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VetMasterJi is a clinical decision-support and education platform for veterinary professionals and students. It does not provide veterinary advice, diagnosis or treatment for specific animals. All drug doses, calculators and differentials are references that must be independently verified before clinical use; the attending registered veterinarian remains solely responsible for every clinical decision.